Cancer care has changed a lot in recent years. Doctors do not just look at how a tumour looks under a microscope. They also study the genes inside cancer cells to understand how the disease behaves.

Bladder cancer is mainly urothelial carcinoma, with non-muscle-invasive and muscle-invasive types, and smoking as a key risk factor. Diagnosis involves cystoscopy, biopsy, urine cytology, and imaging ...